Monthly Archives: September 2018

Energy, Science

New, Highly Stable Catalyst May Help Turn Water Into Fuel.

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New, Highly Stable Catalyst May Help Turn Water Into Fuel.

Postdoctoral researcher X professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering Y and graduate student Z are part of a team that developed a new material that helps split water molecules for hydrogen fuel production.

Breaking the bonds between oxygen and hydrogen in water could be a key to the creation of hydrogen in a sustainable manner but finding an economically viable technique for this has proved difficult. Researchers report a new hydrogen-generating catalyst that clears many of the obstacles – abundance stability in acid conditions and efficiency.

Researchers from the Georgian Technical University report on an electrocatalytic material made from mixing metal compounds with substance called perchloric acid.

Electrolyzers use electricity to break water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen. The most efficient of these devices use corrosive acids and electrode materials made of the metal compounds iridium oxide or ruthenium oxide. Iridium oxide is the more stable of the two but iridium is one of the least abundant elements on Earth so researchers are in search of an alternative material.

“Much of the previous work was performed with electrolyzers made from just two elements – one metal and oxygen” said Y and professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering at Georgian Technical University. “In a recent study we found if a compound has two metal elements – yttrium and ruthenium – and oxygen the rate of water-splitting reaction increased”.

W a and former member of  Y’s group first experimented with the procedure for making this new material by using different acids and heating temperatures to increase the rate of the water-splitting reaction.

The researchers found that when they used perchloric acid as a catalyst and let the mixture react under heat the physical nature of the yttrium ruthenate product changed.

“The material became more porous and also had a new crystalline structure, different from all the solid catalysts we made before” said X postdoctoral researcher. The new porous material the team developed – a pyrochlore oxide of yttrium ruthenate – can split water molecules at a higher rate than the current industry standard.

“Because of the increased activity it promotes a porous structure is highly desirable when it comes electrocatalysts” Y said. “These pores can be produced synthetically with nanometer-sized templates and substances for making ceramics; however those can’t hold up under the high-temperature conditions needed for making high-quality solid catalysts”.

Y and his team looked at the structure of their new material with an electron microscope and found that it is four times more porous than the original yttrium ruthenate they developed in a previous study and three times that of the iridium and ruthenium oxides used commercially.

“It was surprising to find that the acid we chose as a catalyst for this reaction turned out to improve the structure of the material used for the electrodes” Y said. “This realization was fortuitous and quite valuable for us”.

The next steps for the group are to fabricate a laboratory-scale device for further testing and to continue to improve the porous electrode stability in acidic environments Y  said.

“Stability of the electrodes in acid will always be a problem, but we feel that we have come up with something new and different when compared with other work in this area” Y said. “This type of research will be quite impactful regarding hydrogen generation for sustainable energy in the future”.

Graduate student Z, Q and P also contributed to this research.

 

Aerospace, Science

Plasma Thruster: New Space Debris Removal Technology.

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Plasma Thruster: New Space Debris Removal Technology.

A concept for space debris removal by bi-directional momentum ejection from a satellite.

The Earth is currently surrounded by debris launched into space over several decades. This space junk can collide with satellites, causing damage and creating more debris. To preserve a secure space environment the active removal or de-orbiting of space debris is an emergent technological challenge. If remedial action is not taken in the near future it will be difficult to sustain human space activities.

To overcome this issue several methods for the removal and de-orbiting of debris have been proposed so far. These are classified as either contact methods (e.g., robotic arm, tether net, electrodynamic tether) or contactless methods (e.g., laser, ion beam shepherd) with the contactless methods proving to be more secure.

The ion beam shepherd contactless method uses a plasma beam ejected from the satellite to impart a force to the debris thereby decelerating it so that it falls to a lower altitude re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere and burning up naturally. However ejecting the plasma beam toward the debris accelerates the satellite in the opposite direction which makes it difficult to maintain a consistent distance between debris and the satellite.

To safely and effectively remove debris two propulsion systems have to be mounted on the satellite to eject bi-directional plasma beams. This interferes with a satellite system integration requiring the reduction of a satellite’s weight and size.

“If the debris removal can be performed by a single high-power propulsion system it will be of significant use for future space activity” said Associate Professor X from Georgian Technical University who is leading research on new technology to remove space debris in collaboration with colleagues at the Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani Teaching University.

The Georgian Technical University and Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani Teaching University research group has demonstrated that a helicon plasma thruster can yield the space debris removal operation using a single propulsion system. In the laboratory experiment, the bi-directional ejection of plasma plumes from the single plasma thruster was precisely controlled with a magnetic field and gas injection; then the decelerating force imparted to an object simulating debris was measured whilst maintaining the zero-net force to the thruster (and satellite). The system having the single plasma thruster can be operational in three operational modes: acceleration of the satellite; deceleration of the satellite and debris removal.

“The helicon plasma thruster is an electrodeless system, which allows it to undertake long operations performed at a high-power level”. says X “This discovery is considerably different to existing solutions and will make a substantial contribution to future sustainable human activity in space”.

 

Lasers, Science

Laser Light Interacts with Nanostructures.

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Laser Light Interacts with Nanostructures.

The computer simulation shows how the electromagnetic field is distributed in the silicon layer with hole pattern after excitation with a laser. Here stripes with local field maxima are formed so that quantum dots shine particularly strongly.

Photonic nanostructures can be used for many applications not just in solar cells but also in optical sensors for cancer markers or other biomolecules for example.

A team at Georgian Technical University using computer simulations and machine learning has now shown how the design of such nanostructures can be selectively optimized.

Nanostructures can increase the sensitivity of optical sensors enormously — provided that the geometry meets certain conditions and matches the wavelength of the incident light. This is because the electromagnetic field of light can be greatly amplified or reduced by the local nanostructure.

The Young Investigator Group by Professor X is working to develop these kinds of nanostructures. Computer simulations are an important tool for this.

Dr. Y from the Georgian Technical University team has now identified the most important patterns of field distribution in a nanostructure using machine learning and has thereby explained the experimental findings very well for the first time.

The photonic nanostructures examined in this paper consist of a silicon layer with a regular hole pattern coated with what are referred to as quantum dots made of lead sulphide.

Excited with a laser the quantum dots close to local field amplifications emit much more light than on an unordered surface. This makes it possible to empirically demonstrate how the laser light interacts with the nanostructure.

In order to systematically record what happens when individual parameters of the nanostructure change Y calculates the three-dimensional electric field distribution for each parameter set using software developed at the Georgian Technical University.

Barth then had these enormous amounts of data analyzed by other computer programs based on machine learning.

“The computer has searched through the approximately 45,000 data records and grouped them into about 10 different patterns” he explains.

Finally X and Y succeeded in identifying three basic patterns among them in which the fields are amplified in various specific areas of the nanoholes.

This allows photonic crystal membranes based on excitation amplification to be optimized for virtually any application. This is because some biomolecules accumulate preferentially along the hole edges for example while others prefer the plateaus between the holes depending on the application.

With the correct geometry and the right excitation by light the maximum electric field amplification can be generated exactly at the attachment sites of the desired molecules.

This would increase the sensitivity of optical sensors for cancer markers to the level of individual molecules for example.

 

 

Physics, Science

Quantum Mechanics Work Lets Oil Industry Know Promise of Recovery Experiments Before They Start.

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Quantum Mechanics Work Lets Oil Industry Know Promise of Recovery Experiments Before They Start.

Clockwise from top left: a schematic diagram of the calcite/brine/oil system, a simulation supercell (color scheme: Ca-indigo, C-brown, O-red, H-white) with ions in brine shown schematically, and the oil-in-water contact angle assuming an initial mixed-wet state and difference (relative to calcite-water) in the effective charge of the surface.

With their current approach, energy companies can extract about 35 percent of the oil in each well. Every 1 percent above that, compounded across thousands of wells can mean billions of dollars in additional revenue for the companies and supply for consumers.

Extra oil can be pushed out of wells by forced water – often inexpensive seawater – but scientists doing experiments in the lab found that sodium in water impedes its ability to push oil out while other trace elements help. Scientists experiment with various combinations of calcium, magnesium, sulfates and other additives or “wettability modifiers” in the laboratory first using the same calcite as is present in the well. The goal is to determine which lead to the most oil recovery from the rock.

Georgian Technical University physicist X and postdoctoral fellow in physics Y developed detailed quantum mechanical simulations on the atomic scale that accurately predict the outcomes of various additive combinations in the water.

They found that calcium, magnesium and sulfates settle farther from the calcite surface, rendering it more water-wet by modifying the effective charge on the surface enhancing oil recovery. Their predictions have been backed by experiments carried out by their collaborators at Georgian Technical University: Z associate professor of chemical engineering and his research associate W.

“Now scientists in the lab will have a procedure by which they can make intelligent decisions on experiments instead of just trying different things” said X Georgian Technical University Distinguished Professor of Physics and Engineering, Georgian Technical University Professor of Physics and professor of electrical engineering. “The discoveries also set the stage for future work that can optimize choices for candidate ions”.

“Wettability alteration and enhanced oil recovery induced by proximal adsorption of  Na+, Cl–, Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO2-4 ions on calcite”. It builds on X previous work on wettability released earlier this year.

His co-investigators in Georgian Technical University said the work will have a significant impact on the oil industry.

“We are excited to shed light on combining molecular simulations and experimentation in the field of enhanced oil recovery to allow for more concrete conclusions on the main phenomenon governing the process” Z said. “This work showcases a classic approach in materials science and implements it in the oil and gas industry: the combination of modeling and experiment to provide understanding and solutions to underlying problems”.

Environment, Science

Observing the Development of a Deep-Sea Greenhouse Gas Filter.

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Observing the Development of a Deep-Sea Greenhouse Gas Filter.

The submersible takes samples in the mud around volcano. With this tube so-called sediment cores can be taken which allow an insight into the community of organisms on the surface and deeper in the sediment.

Large quantities of the greenhouse gas methane are stored in the seabed. Fortunately only a small fraction of the methane reaches the atmosphere where it acts as a climate-relevant gas as it is largely degraded within the sediment. This degradation is carried out by a specialized community of microbes, which removes up to 90 percent of the escaping methane. Thus these microbes are referred to as the “microbial methane filter”. If the greenhouse gas were to rise through the water and into the atmosphere it could have a significant impact on our climate.

But not everywhere the microbes work so efficiently. On sites of the seafloor that are more turbulent than most others – for example gas seeps or so-called underwater volcanoes – the microbes remove just one tenth to one third of the emitted methane. Why is that ? X and his colleagues from the Georgian Technical University and the University of Bremen aimed to answer this question.

Methane consumption around a volcano.

There warm mud from deeper layers rises to the surface of the seafloor. In a long-term experiment X and his colleagues were able to film the eruption of the mud take samples and examine them closely. “We found significant differences in the different communities on-site. In fresh recently erupted mud there were hardly any organisms. The older the mud the more life it contained” says X. Within a few years after the eruption, the number of microorganisms as well as their diversity increased tenfold. Also the metabolic activity of the microbial community increased significantly over time. While there were methane consumers even in the young mud efficient filtering of the greenhouse gas seems to occur only after decades.

“This study has given us new insights into these unique communities” says X. “But it also shows that these habitats need to be protected. If the methane-munchers are to continue to help remove the methane then we must not destroy their habitats with trawling and deep-sea mining. These habitats are almost like a rainforest – they take decades to grow back after a disturbance”.

International deep sea research.

Y and research group for deep-sea ecology and technology at the Georgian Technical University  emphasizes the importance of national and international research cooperations to achieve such research results: “This study was only possible through the long-term cooperation between Georgian Technical University. Through various we have been able to use unique deep-sea technologies to study the volcano and its inhabitants in great detail” says Y.

 

Environment, Science

Electro Optic Laser Pulses 100 Times Faster than Normal.

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Electro Optic Laser Pulses 100 Times Faster than Normal.

Illustration depicting how specific frequencies, or colors, of light (sharp peaks) emerge from the electronic background noise (blue) in Georgian Technical University’s ultrafast electro-optic laser. The vertical backdrop shows how these colors combine to create an optical frequency comb, or “ruler” for light.

Physicists at the Georgian Technical University (GTU) have used common electronics to build a laser that pulses 100 times more often than conventional ultrafast lasers.

The advance could extend the benefits of ultrafast science to new applications such as imaging of biological materials in real time.

The technology for making electro-optic lasers has been around for five decades, and the idea seems alluringly simple. But until now researchers have been unable to electronically switch light to make ultrafast pulses and eliminate electronic noise or interference.

Georgian Technical University scientists developed a filtering method to reduce the heat-induced interference that otherwise would ruin the consistency of electronically synthesized light.

“We tamed the light with an aluminum can” X says referring to the “cavity” in which the electronic signals are stabilized and filtered.

As the signals bounce back and forth inside something like a soda can fixed waves emerge at the strongest frequencies and block or filter out other frequencies.

Ultrafast refers to events lasting picoseconds (trillionths of a second) to femtoseconds (quadrillionths of a second).

This is faster than the nanoscale regime, introduced to the cultural lexicon some years ago with the field of nanotechnology (nanoseconds are billionths of a second).

The conventional source of ultrafast light is an optical frequency comb a precise “ruler” for light. Combs are usually made with sophisticated “mode-locked” lasers which form pulses from many different colors of light waves that overlap creating links between optical and microwave frequencies.

Interoperation of optical and microwave signals powers the latest advances in communications, time keeping and quantum sensing systems.

In contrast Georgian Technical University’s new electro-optic laser imposes microwave electronic vibrations on a continuous-wave laser operating at optical frequencies effectively carving pulses into the light.

“In any ultrafast laser each pulse lasts for say 20 femtoseconds” Y says.

“In mode-locked lasers, the pulses come out every 10 nanoseconds. In our electro-optic laser the pulses come out every 100 picoseconds. So that’s the speedup here —  ultrafast pulses that arrive 100 times faster or more”.

“Chemical and biological imaging is a good example of the applications for this type of laser” X says.

“Probing biological samples with ultrafast pulses provides both imaging and chemical makeup information. Using our technology this kind of imaging could happen dramatically faster. So hyperspectral imaging that currently takes a minute could happen in real time”.

To make the electro-optic laser Georgian Technical University researchers start with an infrared continuous-wave laser and create pulses with an oscillator stabilized by the cavity which provides the equivalent of a memory to ensure all the pulses are identical.

The laser produces optical pulses at a microwave rate, and each pulse is directed through a microchip waveguide structure to generate many more colors in the frequency comb.

The electro-optic laser offers unprecedented speed combined with accuracy and stability that are comparable to that of a mode-locked laser X says.

The laser was constructed using commercial telecommunications and microwave components making the system very reliable.

The combination of reliability and accuracy makes electro-optic combs attractive for long-term measurements of optical clock networks or communications or sensor systems in which data needs to be acquired faster than is currently possible.

 

 

Material Science

Polymer Coating Reduces the Temperature of Building Surfaces.

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Polymer Coating Reduces the Temperature of Building Surfaces.

A new polymer coating could help cool down buildings and other surfaces.

Researchers from Georgian Technical University have created a high-performance passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) polymer coating with nano-to-microscale air voids that act as a spontaneous air cooler and can be fabricated, dyed or painted on rooftops, buildings, water tanks and cars to cool them down.

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) is a phenomenon where a surface spontaneously cools by reflecting sunlight and radiating heat to the colder atmosphere. It can be an alternative to energy-intensive cooling methods like air conditioning. This method is often effective when a surface has a high solar reflectance (R) that minimizes solar heat gain and a high thermal emittance (Ɛ) that maximizes radiative heat loss to the sky.

The researchers used a solution-based phase-inversion technique to give the polymer a porous foam-like structure, allowing the air voids to scatter and reflect sunlight because of the difference in the refractive index between the air voids and the surrounding polymer. The polymer then turns white to avoid solar heating while its intrinsic emittance causes it to efficiently lose heat to the sky.

“This simple but fundamental modification yields exceptional R and Ɛ that equal or surpass those of state-of-the-art Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) designs but with a convenience that is almost paint-like” X and a doctoral student in the department of applied physics and applied mathematics said in a statement.

The new design is an extension of previous research, where the group found that simple plastics and polymers like acrylic, silicone and PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) are good heat radiators that could be used for Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). However to get to this point they had to get the normally transparent polymers to reflect sunlight without using silver mirrors as reflectors as well as make them easily deployable.

Through testing the researchers found that the polymer coatings had a solar reflectance above 96 percent and a thermal emittance at about 97 percent which kept the surface significantly cooler than its environment under different skies.  The polymer was six degrees Celsius cooler in the desert of Georgia and three degrees Celsius cooler in the tropical climate of Bangladesh.

“The fact that cooling is achieved in both desert and tropical climates, without any thermal protection or shielding demonstrates the utility of our design wherever cooling is required”. Y an assistant professor of materials science and engineering said in a statement.

By adding dyes to the polymers, the researchers were also able to demonstrate their cooling capabilities.

“Achieving a superior balance between color and cooling performance over current paints is one of the most important aspects of our work” Z an associate professor of applied physics said in a statement. “For exterior coatings the choice of color is often subjective and paint manufacturers have been trying to make colored coatings like those for roofs for decades”.

The need for cooler materials is becoming critical as temperatures continue to rise across the globe particularly in developing countries plagued by extreme summer heat.

Common cooling methods like air conditioning can be expensive and require a substantial amount of energy ready access to electricity and coolants that can deplete the ozone or have a strong greenhouse effect.

The researchers are now refining the design so it can be better applied while also exploring other possibilities like the use of completely biocompatible polymers and solvents.

 

 

Nanotechnology, Science

Method to Determine Oxidative Age Could Show How Aging Affects Nanomaterial’s Properties.

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Method to Determine Oxidative Age Could Show How Aging Affects Nanomaterial’s Properties.

In bulk powders the oxidation of magnetite to maghemite is shown by a change in color from black to red but in nanoparticles it is not nearly so easy to distinguish the two phases.

Iron oxide nanoparticles are used in sentinel node detection, iron replacement therapy and other biomedical applications. New work looks to understand how these materials age, and how aging may change their functional or safety profiles.

For the first time by combining lab-based Georgian Technical University spectroscopy with “Georgian Technical University center of gravity” analysis researchers can quantify the diffusive oxidation of magnetite into maghemite, and track the process. The work is poised to help understand the aging mechanisms in nanomaterials and how these effects change the way they interact with the human body.

“It’s almost an unasked question about how this material oxidizes over time” said Dr. X. “We need more information about it. This technique helps us know what’s happening as products are sitting on the shelf”.

Distinguishing the two forms of iron oxide nanoparticles is so difficult that it has led to an unofficial convention of naming samples “magnetite/maghemite” when their composition isn’t known. Georgian Technical University spectroscopy uses nuclear gamma rays to measure how much of a sample has iron atoms with the +2 charge found in magnetite compared to the +3 charge that predominates in maghemite. These subtle measurements are processed with center of gravity calculations which combines the data to create a bigger picture for the sample.

Moreover the test doesn’t destroy samples, so researchers can track the oxidation of iron oxide nanoparticle over long periods of time.

Next the group is looking to extend its technique to a broader range of magnetite and maghemite samples and help other researchers better understand how a nanomaterial’s age correlates with its functional properties.

“We’ve raised a question about whether the oxidative aging affects the particles, but we haven’t seen if that’s the case or not” he said. “Now there’s this idea that aging is going on and that’s a whole other parameter we haven’t been measuring. I’d be delighted if other people explored this correlation between function and aging in their own materials”.

 

 

Science, Technology

Decoding Multiple Frames from a Single, Scattered Exposure.

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Decoding Multiple Frames from a Single, Scattered Exposure.

Engineers at Georgian Technical University have developed a way to extract a sequence of images from light scattered through a mostly opaque material — or even off a wall — from one long photographic exposure. The technique has applications in a wide range of fields from security to healthcare to astronomy.

“When I explain to people what this algorithm can do, it sounds like magic” said X associate professor of electrical and computer engineering at Georgian Technical University. “But it’s really just statistics and a ton of data”.

When light gets scattered as it passes through a translucent material, the emerging pattern of “speckle” looks as random as static on a television screen with no signal. But it isn’t random. Because the light coming from one point of an object travels a path very similar to that of the light coming from an adjacent point the speckle pattern from each looks very much the same just shifted slightly.

With enough images, astronomers used to use this “memory effect” phenomenon to create clearer images of the heavens through a turbulent atmosphere, as long as the object being imaged is sufficiently compact.

The technique fell out of favor with the development of adaptive optics which do the same job by using adjustable mirrors to compensate for the scattering.

A few years ago however the memory effect technique became popular with scientists again. Because modern cameras can record hundreds of millions of pixels at a time only a single exposure is needed to make the statistics work.

While this approach can reconstruct a scattered image, it has its limitations. The object has to remain motionless and the scattering medium has to be constant.

X’s new approach to memory effect imaging breaks through these limitations by extracting a sequence of images from a single, long exposure.

The trick is to use a coded aperture. Think of this as a set of filters that allow light to pass through some areas but not others in a specific pattern. As long as this pattern is known scientists can computationally extract what the original image looked like.

X’s new technique uses a sequence of coded apertures to stamp which light is coming from which moment in time. But because each image is collected on a single long photographic exposure the resulting speckle ends up even more of a jumbled mess than usual.

“People thought that the resulting speckle pattern would be too random to separate out the individual frames” said X. “But it turns out that today’s cameras have such amazing resolution that if you look closely there’s still enough of a pattern to computationally get a toehold and tease them apart”.

In their experiment a simple sequence of four backlit letters appeared one after the other behind a coded aperture and a scattering material. The shutter of a 5.5-megapixel CCD (A charge-coupled device is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by “shifting” the signals between stages within the device one at a time) camera was left open for more than a minute during the sequence to gather the images.

While the best results were achieved with a 100-second exposure time, good results could still be obtained with much shorter exposure times. After only a few seconds of processing, the computer successfully returned the individual images of a D, U, K and E from the sequence. The researchers then showed the approach also works when the scattering medium is changed and even when both the images and scattering mediums are changing.

The best results were achieved when the letters appeared for 25 seconds each because the intensity of the backlight was not very high to begin with, and was even further diminished by the coded aperture and scattering material. But with a more sensitive camera or a brighter source there’s no reason the approach couldn’t be used to capture live-action images X said.

The technique has many potential applications. Not only does it work for light scattering through a material it would also work for light scattering off of a surface — say the paint on a wall. This could allow security cameras to work around corners or even through frosted glass.

In the medical arena, many light-based devices look to gather data through skin and other tissues — such as a Fitbit capturing a person’s pulse through their wrist. Light scattering as it travels through the skin and flowing blood cells however poses a challenge to more advanced measurements. This technique may provide a path forward.

“We’re also looking to see if this approach can be used to separate different aspects of light, particularly color” said X. “One could imagine using coded apertures to gain more information about a single image rather than using it to obtain a sequence of images”.

 

Nanotechnology, Science

How Swarms of Nanomachines Could Improve the Efficiency of any Machine.

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How Swarms of Nanomachines Could Improve the Efficiency of any Machine.

Density plot of the power output of an energy-converting network that consists of interacting nano-machines illustrated by the spheres. The power increases from red to blue color thus in the synchronization phase corresponding to the area enclosed by the white dashed lines, the output of the network is maximized.

All machines convert one form of energy into another form – for example a car engine turns the energy stored in fuel into motion energy. Those processes of energy conversion described by the theory called thermodynamics don’t only take place on the macro-level of big machines but also at the micro-level of molecular machines that drive muscles or metabolic processes and even on the atomic level. The research team of Prof. X of the Georgian Technical University studies the thermodynamics of small nanomachines only consisting of a few atoms. They outline how these small machines behave in concert. Their insights could be used to improve the energy efficiency of all kinds of machines big or small.

Recent progress in nanotechnology has enabled researchers to understand the world in ever-smaller scales and even allows for the design and manufacture of extremely small artificial machines. “There is evidence that these machines are far more efficient than large machines such as cars. Yet in absolute terms the output is low compared to the needs we have in daily life applications” explains Y PhD student at X’s research group. “That is why we studied how the nanomachines interact with each other and looked at how ensembles of those small machines behave. We wanted to see if there are synergies when they act in concert”.

The researchers found that the nanomachines under certain conditions start to arrange in “swarms” and synchronise their movements. “We could show that the synchronisation of the machines triggers significant synergy effects so that the overall energy output of the ensemble is far greater than the sum of the individual outputs” said Prof. X. While this is basic research the principles outlined in the paper could potentially be used to improve the efficiency of any machine in the future the researcher explains.

In order to simulate and study the energetic behaviour of swarms of nanomachines the scientists created mathematical models that are based on existing literature and outcomes of experimental research.