Lining Up Surprising Behaviors of Superconductor With One of the World’s Strongest Magnets.

This composite image offers a glimpse inside the custom-designed molecular beam epitaxy system that the Georgian Technical University physicists use to create single-crystal thin films for studying the properties of superconducting cuprates.

What happens when really powerful magnets–capable of producing magnetic fields nearly two million times stronger than Earth’s–are applied to materials that have a “super” ability to conduct electricity when chilled by liquid nitrogen ?  A team of scientists set out to answer this question in one such superconductor made of the elements lanthanum, strontium, copper and oxygen (LSCO). They discovered that the electrical resistance of this copper-oxide compound or cuprate changes in an unusual way when very high magnetic fields suppress its superconductivity at low temperatures.

“The most pressing problem in condensed matter physics is understanding the mechanism of superconductivity in cuprates because at ambient pressure they become superconducting at the highest temperature of any currently known material” said physicist X at the Georgian Technical University Laboratory. “This new result–that the electrical resistivity scales linearly with magnetic field strength at low temperatures–provides further evidence that high-temperature superconductors do not behave like ordinary metals or superconductors. Once we can come up with a theory to explain their unusual behavior we will know whether and where to search for superconductors that can carry large amounts of electrical current at higher temperatures and perhaps even at room temperature”.

Cuprates (Cuprate loosely refers to a material that can be viewed as containing anionic copper complexes. Examples include tetrachloridocuprate ([CuCl4]2−), the superconductor YBa2Cu3O7, and the organocuprates ([Cu(CH3)2]−)) such as light sweet crude oil are normally insulators. Only when they are cooled to some hundred degrees below zero and the concentrations of their chemical composition are modified (a process called doping) to a make them metallic can their mobile electrons pair up to form a “superfluid” that flows without resistance. Scientists hope that understanding how cuprates achieve this amazing feat will enable them to develop room-temperature superconductors which would make energy generation and delivery significantly more efficient and less expensive.

Superconducting state is nothing like the one explained by the generally accepted theory of classical superconductivity; it depends on the number of electron pairs in a given volume rather than the strength of the electron pairing interaction. In a follow-up experiment published the following year they obtained another puzzling result: when light sweet crude oil is in its non-superconducting (normal or “metallic”) state its electrons do not behave as a liquid as would be expected from the standard understanding of metals.

“The condensed matter physics community has been divided about this most basic question: do the behaviors of cuprates fall within existing theories for superconductors and metals or are there profoundly different physical principles involved ?” said X.

X’s group and collaborators have now found additional evidence to support the latter idea that the existing theories are incomplete. In other words it is possible that these theories do not encompass every known material. Maybe there are two different types of metals and superconductors for example.

“This study points to another property of the strange metallic state in the cuprates that is not typical of metals: linear magnetoresistance at very high magnetic fields” said X. “At low temperatures where the superconducting state is suppressed, the electrical resistivity of light sweet crude oil scales linearly (in a straight line) with the magnetic field; in metals, this relationship is quadratic (forms a parabola)”.

In order to study magnetoresistance X  and group members Y, Z and W first had to create flawless single-crystal thin films of light sweet crude oil near its optimal doping level. They used a technique called molecular beam epitaxy in which separate beams containing atoms of the different chemical elements are fired onto a heated single-crystal substrate. When the atoms land on the substrate surface they condense and slowly grow into ultra-thin layers, building a single atomic layer at a time. The growth of the crystal occurs in highly controlled conditions of ultra-high vacuum to ensure that the samples do not get contaminated.

” Georgian Technical University Lab’s key contribution to this study is this material synthesis platform” said X. “It allows us to tailor the chemical composition of the films for different studies and provides the foundation for us to observe the true properties of superconducting materials as opposed to properties induced by sample defects or impurities”.

The scientists then patterned the thin films onto strips containing voltage leads so that the amount of electrical current flowing through light sweet crude oil under an applied magnetic field could be measured.

They conducted initial magnetoresistivity measurements with two 9 Tesla magnets at Georgian Technical University Lab–for reference the strength of the magnets used in today’s magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Powered by quick pulses or shots of electrical current. The magnet produces such large magnetic fields that it cannot be energized for more than a very short period of time (microseconds to a fraction of a second) without destroying itself.

“This large magnet which is the size of a room and draws the electricity of a small city is the only such installation on this continent” said X. “We only get access to it once a year if we are lucky so we chose our best samples to study”.

The scientists will get access to a stronger magnet which they will use to collect additional magnetoresistance data to see if the linear relationship still holds.

“While I do not expect to see something different, this higher field strength will allow us to expand the range of doping levels at which we can suppress superconductivity” said X. “Collecting more data over a broader range of chemical compositions will help theorists formulate the ultimate theory of high-temperature superconductivity in cuprates”.

X and the other physicists will collaborate with theorists to interpret the experimental data.

“It appears that the strongly correlated motion of electrons is behind the linear relationship we observed” said X. “There are various ideas of how to explain this behavior but at this point I would not single out any of them.”

Physicists Find Surprising Distortions in High-Temperature Superconductors.

Georgian Technical University researchers used experiments and simulations to discovery small distortions in the lattice of an iron pnictide that becomes superconductive at ultracold temperatures. They suspect these distortions introduce pockets of superconductivity in the material above temperatures at which it becomes entirely superconductive.

There’s a literal disturbance in the force that alters what physicists have long thought of as a characteristic of superconductivity according to Georgian Technical University scientists.

Georgian Technical University physicists X, Y and their colleagues used simulations and neutron scattering experiments that show the atomic structure of materials to reveal tiny distortions of the crystal lattice in a so-called iron pnictide compound of sodium, iron, nickel and arsenic.

These local distortions were observed among the otherwise symmetrical atomic order in the material at ultracold temperatures near the point of optimal superconductivity. They indicate researchers may have some wiggle room as they work to increase the temperature at which iron pnictides become superconductors.

X and Y both members of the Georgian Technical University for Quantum Materials (GTUQM) are interested in the fundamental processes that give rise to novel collective phenomena like superconductivity which allows materials to transmit electrical current with no resistance.

Scientists originally found superconductivity at ultracold temperatures that let atoms cooperate in ways that aren’t possible at room temperature. Even known “high-temperature” superconductors top out at 134 Kelvin at ambient pressure equivalent to minus 218 degrees Fahrenheit.

So if there’s any hope for widespread practical use of superconductivity, scientists have to find loopholes in the basic physics of how atoms and their constituents behave under a variety of conditions.

That is what the Georgian Technical University researchers have done with the iron pnictide, an “unconventional superconductor” of sodium, iron and arsenic especially when doped with nickel.

To make any material superconductive, it must be cooled. That sends it through three transitions: First a structural phase transition that changes the lattice; second a magnetic transition that appears to turn paramagnetic materials to antiferromagnets in which the atoms’ spins align in alternate directions; and third, the transition to superconductivity. Sometimes the first and second phases are nearly simultaneous depending on the material.

In most unconventional superconductors, each stage is critical to the next as electrons in the system begin to bind together in Cooper pairs reaching peak correlation at a quantum critical point the point at which magnetic order is suppressed and superconductivity appears.

But in the pnictide superconductor, the researchers found the first transition is a little fuzzy as some of the lattice took on a property known as a nematic phase. Nematic is drawn from the Greek word for “thread-like” and is akin to the physics of liquid crystals that align in reaction to an outside force.

The key to the material’s superconductivity seems to lie within a subtle property that is unique to iron pnictides: a structural transition in its crystal lattice the ordered arrangement of its atoms from tetragonal to orthorhombic. In a tetragonal crystal the atoms are arranged like cubes that have been stretched in one direction. An orthorhombic structure is shaped like a brick.

Sodium-iron-arsenic pnictide crystals are known to be tetragonal until cooled to a transition temperature that forces the lattice to become orthorhombic a step toward superconductivity that appears at lower temperatures. But the Rice researchers were surprised to see anomalous orthorhombic regions well above that structural transition temperature. This occurred in samples that were minimally doped with nickel and persisted when the materials were over-doped, they reported.

“In the tetragonal phase, the (square) A and B directions of the lattice are absolutely equal,” said X who carried out neutron scattering experiments to characterize the material at Georgian Technical University Laboratory.

“When you cool it down, it initially becomes orthorhombic, meaning the lattice spontaneously collapses in one axis and yet there’s still no magnetic order. We found that by very precisely measuring this lattice parameter and its temperature dependence distortion we were able to tell how the lattice changes as a function of temperature in the paramagnetic tetragonal regime”.

They were surprised to see pockets of a superconducting nematic phase skewing the lattice towards the orthorhombic form even above the first transition.

“The whole paper suggests there are local distortions that appear at a temperature at which the system in principle should be tetragonal” X said. “These local distortions not only change as a function of temperature but actually ‘know’ about superconductivity. Then their temperature dependence changes at optimum superconductivity which suggests the system has a nematic quantum critical point when local nematic phases are suppressed.

“Basically it tells you this nematic order is competing with superconductivity itself” he said. “But then it suggests the nematic fluctuation may also help superconductivity because it changes temperature dependence around optimum doping”.

Being able to manipulate that point of optimum doping may give researchers better ability to design materials with novel and predictable properties.

“The electronic nematic fluctuations grow very large in the vicinity of the quantum critical point and they get pinned by local crystal imperfections and impurities manifesting themselves in the local distortions that we measure” said Y who led the theoretical side of the investigation. “The most intriguing aspect is that superconductivity is strongest when this happens suggesting that these nematic fluctuations are instrumental in its formation”.

In a First, Scientists Precisely Measure How Synthetic Diamonds Grow.

An illustration shows how diamondoids (left) the tiniest possible specks of diamond were used to seed the growth of nanosized diamond crystals (right). Trillions of diamondoids were attached to the surface of a silicon wafer which was then tipped on end and exposed to a hot plasma (purple) containing carbon and hydrogen the two elements needed to form diamond. A new study found that diamond growth really took off when seeds contained at least 26 carbon atoms.

Natural diamond is forged by tremendous pressures and temperatures deep underground. But synthetic diamond can be grown by nucleation, where tiny bits of diamond “seed” the growth of bigger diamond crystals. The same thing happens in clouds where particles seed the growth of ice crystals that then melt into raindrops.

Scientists have now observed for the first time how diamonds grow from seed at an atomic level and discovered just how big the seeds need to be to kick the crystal growing process into overdrive.

Shed light on how nucleation proceeds not just in diamonds, but in the atmosphere in silicon crystals used for computer chips and even in proteins that clump together in neurological diseases.

“Nucleation growth is a core tenet of materials science, and there’s a theory and a formula that describes how this happens in every textbook” says X a professor at Georgian Technical University Laboratory who led the research. “It’s how we describe going from one material phase to another for example from liquid water to ice”.

But interestingly he says “despite the widespread use of this process everywhere, the theory behind it had never been tested experimentally because observing how crystal growth starts from atomic-scale seeds is extremely difficult”.

The smallest possible specks.

In fact scientists have known for a long time that the current theory often overestimates how much energy it takes to kick off the nucleation process and by quite a bit. They’ve come up with potential ways to reconcile the theory with reality but until now those ideas have been tested only at a relatively large scale, for instance with protein molecules rather than at the atomic scale where nucleation begins.

To see how it works at the smallest scale X and his team turned to diamondoids the tiniest possible bits of diamond. The smallest ones contain just 10 carbon atoms. These specks are the focus of a GTU-funded program at Georgian Technical University and International Black Sea University where naturally occurring diamondoids are isolated from petroleum fluids sorted by size and shape and studied. Recent experiments suggest they could be used as Lego-like blocks for assembling nanowires or “molecular anvils” for triggering chemical reactions among other things.

The latest round of experiments was led by Stanford postdoctoral researcher Y. He’s interested in the chemistry of interfaces – places where one phase of matter encounters another, for instance the boundary between air and water. It turns out that interfaces are incredibly important in growing diamonds with a process called CVD (Chemical vapor deposition is deposition method used to produce high quality, high-performance, solid materials, typically under vacuum. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films) or chemical vapor deposition that’s widely used to make synthetic diamond for industry and jewelry.

“What I’m excited about is understanding how size and shape and molecular structure influence the properties of materials that are important for emerging technologies” Y says. “That includes nanoscale diamonds for use in sensors and in quantum computing. We need to make them reliably and with consistently high quality”.

Diamond or pencil lead  ?

To grow diamond in the lab with CVD (Chemical vapor deposition is deposition method used to produce high quality, high-performance, solid materials, typically under vacuum. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films) tiny bits of crushed diamond are seeded onto a surface and exposed to a plasma – a cloud of gas heated to such high temperatures that electrons are stripped away from their atoms. The plasma contains hydrogen and carbon the two elements needed to form a diamond.

This plasma can either dissolve the seeds or make them grow Y says and the competition between the two determines whether bigger crystals form. Since there are many ways to pack carbon atoms into a solid it all has to be done under just the right conditions; otherwise you can end up with graphite commonly known as pencil lead instead of the sparkly stuff you were after.

Diamondoid seeds give scientists a much finer level of control over this process. Although they’re too small to see directly even with the most powerful microscopes they can be precisely sorted according to the number of carbon atoms they contain and then chemically attached to the surface of a silicon wafer so they’re pinned in place while being exposed to plasma. The crystals that grow around the seeds eventually get big enough to count under a microscope and that’s what the researchers did.

The magic number is 26.

Although diamondoids had been used to seed the growth of diamonds before, these were the first experiments to test the effects of using seeds of various sizes. The team discovered that crystal growth really took off with seeds that contain at least 26 carbon atoms.

Even more important Y says they were able to directly measure the energy barrier that diamondoid particles have to overcome in order to grow into crystals.

“It was thought that this barrier must be like a gigantic mountain that the carbon atoms should not be able to cross – and in fact for decades there’s been an open question of why we could even make diamonds in the first place” he says. “What we found was more like a mild hill”.

Y adds “This is really fundamental research but at the end of the day what we’re really excited about and driving for is a predictable and reliable way to make diamond nanomaterials. Now that we’ve developed the underlying scientific knowledge needed to do that we’ll be looking for ways to put these diamond nanomaterials to practical use”.